Importance of Basic Audit Techniques and basic methods employed for securing information
Audit Techniques
are the methods generally applied in the collection of evidences or securing
information. They are the means available to an auditor on the application of
which be can collect evidences from his clients. These techniques are not the
evidences by themselves rather they are only means and methods to force technically
the clients to produce the evidences and proof regarding the genuineness of a
particular business transaction. Techniques are applied first; evidences are
then collected as a result of the application of these techniques. If these
techniques are not applied, the auditor may not be able to collect some of the
evidences and the clients may hide them. In this case, the auditor may not be
able to throw his professional light on the reliability of the accounting data.
Mautz has
defined ‘Audit Techniques’ as “The expression ‘Audit techniques’ may be used to
describe the basic methods of collecting evidences used by auditors, the
technique in itself is not evidence; it supplies the evidence required by the
auditor to inform him sufficiently on the subject so that he can give a
professional opinion”.
Which technique
should be applied at a particular time and situation, depends upon the
auditor’s knowledge, experience, skill and judgment capacity. He cannot ‘smell’
out the errors in the records without applying audit techniques.
Ten Basic
Techniques
The various
basic techniques or methods of securing information may be listed as under:
1) Physical
examination and count
2) Confirmation
3) Examination
of authoritative documents
4)
Re-computation
5) Retracing
book-keeping procedures
6) Scanning
7) Inquiry
8) Examination
of subsidiary records
9) Correlation
with related information
10) Observation
of pertinent activities and condition.
These techniques
are discussed here in some detail:
Physical
Examination & Count
Physical
examination implies count, identification, and, to at least a limited degree,
verification of genuineness and quality. No responsibility can be established
for the auditor in regard to quality and genuineness because be cannot be
expected to be an expert in every type of material. On the other hand, he
cannot dredge responsibility by merely stating that he is not an expert. In
fact, the real solution of the problem lies somewhere in between these two
extremes.
Physical
examination is known as eye-witness in Auditing. But it involves certain
subsidiary ideas which require attention:
1) First of all, it requires
identification of the item being examined. It does little good to examine an
inventory of purchased parts unless some can tell with reasonable accuracy what
is being examined and can later relate it to the information in the accounting
records. One must be convinced that he has examined the specific thing which he
is supposed to be verifying.
2) The auditor should try his best to
distinguish quality of whatever be is examining. It is a difficult job for the
auditor.
3) Quantity should also be given
consideration. Count is a part of physical examination. For example, one who is
verifying the existence of three trucks, he must count and should not be
content if he is shows but two.
4) Physical examination tells nothing
about the ownership of the thing. Hence additional consideration must be given
to establish the fact of ownership.
Limitation of
the technique of physical examination is that this technique is restricted to
those assets which are either material or have some tangible evidence of
existence. It is extremely useful in regard to cash, inventories, fixed
property additions, and the like.
In many cases,
this technique can be applied satisfactorily only if advance preparations have
been made to get the items to be examined in position and condition for
inspection. Material in transit, in process of manufacture, packaged or
partially assembled goods may make effective examination and count impossible.
Confirmation
Confirmation
consists of obtaining a written statement from someone outside the enterprise
on a fact which that person is qualified to affirm. Properly applied, it is one
of the useful techniques available to an auditor and supplies evidence of
considerable reliability of some accounts. It may be applied to verify:
1) Accounts
Receivable
2) Accounts
Payable
3) Bank Balances
4) Contingent
Liabilities
5) Inventory in
Warehouse
6) Title to
property
7) Advances to
outside parties
8) Investments.
This technique
is applied by writing letters to the parties concerned to confirm a particular
amount. Obviously, it depends upon the reliability of the parties concerned and
influence of the clients on the party concerned. The difficulty in applying this
technique is that the outside parties are not under any legal obligation to
supply any information to the auditor. The auditor has no relation with the
outside party whereas the clients are elated with the party. They may not
listen to the auditor but they may listen to their business relations.
Therefore, as a matter of courtesy, the request for information should come not
from the auditor but from the company. Another control that involves is this:
that the answer to all requests should be sent directly to the auditor without
any interference of the company in any way.
Examination of
Original Documents
In modern
business, almost every transaction is evidenced by a document of some king.
Included in this idea of documentary evidence for transactions are purchases
and sales invoices, cheques, remittance advices, insurance policies, contracts,
stock certificates, guarantees, requisitions, purchase orders, receiving
reports, and a host of specialised papers.
Business papers
of this of type provide the original record of the given transaction and
constitute the evidence of that transaction. Some of the examples are as
follows:
1) Purchases
invoices will be examined and compared with the purchase book;
2) Cancelled
cheques will be examined and compared with the cheque register or cash
disbursement book;
3) Petty cash
tickets will be examined and compared with the record of petty cash
disbursements.
It is
practically not possible to examine all the documents due to audit expenses.
Therefore, random sampling may be applied. Further, if the auditor is satisfied
with the internal control system, he may reduce his work. If he gets errors and
irregularities in the selected transactions, then he may increase his area of
examination to a large number of transactions.
Re-computation
By
‘Re-computation’ we mean to compute or calculate again to verify accounting
figures, where necessary. Generally, auditors are given tape-runs in support of
the accounting figures. But the rule “never accept a client’s tape” is a very
practical one and should never be broken by the auditor without recognition of
the risk which follows.
Re-computation
is at once the most simple and the most valid verification technique. It is
complete in itself. Once the auditor proves the accuracy of a particular figure
by his own calculation, he accepts he arithmetical accuracy without further
question. The technique of re-computation may be applied to:
1) Footing of
books of original entry
2) Ledger
account balances
3) Depreciation
and bad debt computation
4) Bonus
calculation
5) Write offs of
prepaid insurance and patents.
It should be
noted that the technique of re-computation proves only arithmetical accuracy
and nothing more. Other tests are required to establish the validity of
component figures.
Retracing
Book-Keeping Procedures
In this
technique, the auditor has to repeat what has already been done by the accounts
staff. The discover any errors which may have been made in such book-keeping
procedures as posting from the book of original entry to the ledger, or in
taking total balances, it is necessary for the auditor to repeat the particular
procedure. This technique is applied in order to ensure that the accounts were
correctly processed, posted and finally presented correctly on the financial
statements. Errors noted during application of this technique are required to
be rectified by the accounts staff. A record of errors observed should,
however, be kept by the auditor and any abnormal feature should be reported to
the management for the preventive action.
Scanning
To scan means to
scrutinise or to examine point by point. In auditing, it refer to the critical
study of an account, a book of original entry, or any other record or summary
of information. This is said to be a technique which approaches the ‘sixth
sense’ attributed to an auditor mistakenly. An experienced and alert auditor
looks a given page and immediately conclude not only that something is peculiar
but also state exactly where the trouble lies. However, there is nothing
miraculous about such a diagnosis. The auditor is merely summoning up all his
accounting knowledge and experience on that particular type of information to
evaluate that which he sees as being either normal and ordinary or as being
unusual and therefore subject to suspicion. His eyes stop itself if there is
anything unusual. For example, a general ledger account for cash in most cases
will receive one debit a month from the cash receipt book and one credit a
month from the cash disbursements records. Thirteen credits in the space of a
single year should arouse one’s interest as to what the necessity for the
thirteenth item might be. In the same way a debit to cash from some source
other than the cash receipts book would bear investigation.
Scanning is
perhaps the most indefinite – audit technique commonly employed, and it is one
which seldom gives rise to easily established evidence. In many cases it merely
establishes the necessity for further verification of some other kind. Yet in
the hands of an experienced man it is an extremely valuable tool and one never
to be overlooked.
Inquiry
Inquiry consists
of asking questions and of obtaining satisfactory answers to those questions.
The answers range from formal statements in writing to casual conversational
comments. Yet by a careful use of the questioning procedure one can learn a
great deal about matters which might otherwise be obscure. The answer to a
single question is seldom a reliable bit of evidence. The answers to several
related questions may provide very satisfactory evidence if they are all
reasonable and consistence.
It is not a good
practice to allow those keeping the records to feel that an auditor is willing
to rely on their unsupported statements. In this case they will not give
careful and accurate replies.
Occasionally one
is forced to obtain additional information by telephoned questions, but it
should be
apparent that such information is rarely subject to real
verification. The man who earns himself a reputation as a “telephone auditor”
does not have a particularly enviable rating among his fellow practitioners.
Examination of
Subsidiary Records
In large
organisation a good number of accounts are operated and they are controlled by
“Control Accounts” techniques. These control accounts are supported by
subsidiary ledger accounts. For example, Account Receivable Control is
supported by Account Receivable Subsidiary Ledger. Accounts Payable Control is
supported by Accounts payable Subsidiary Ledger. Selling Expense – Control is
supported by selling Expense Subsidiary Ledger.
These subsidiary
records should be checked by the auditor in order to ensure that the Control
Accounts are correct. Control account figures should not be accepted without
examining the corresponding subsidiary records. There may be a number of discrepancies,
irregularities, wrong postings or castings in the subsidiary records and if
this record is not checked in detail, the errors may pass undetected resulting
in the Control accounts being inaccurate.
The subsidiary
records may be checked on percentage of sample basis depending on the system or
degree of satisfactory internal control system.
The subsidiary
records may be checked on percentage or sample basis depending on the system or
degree of satisfactory internal control system.
Correlation with
Related Information
Within the
double entry system of accounting, there is a great tendency for items in one
place to relate to those in another. For example, there is generally a
relationship between the amount of insurance expense for the year and the decrease
in the unexpired insurance account balance. Similarly, there is relationship
between the increase in the estimated uncollectible and the bad debt expense
account. Auditors should continually be on the look-out for possibilities of
exploiting such relationship. An asset account which is related to an expense
account is not fully verified until that expense account has been reconciled
with the asset in some way. The same is true of liability accounts such as
accrued taxes and accrued interest.
The internal
harmony or consistency of related accounts is certainly some evidence that
accounts are free of at least mechanical errors, if no others.
Observation
During the
course of a normal audit engagement, an auditor has a great many opportunities
to exercise his powers of observation. He will examine and count portion of the
inventory, probably take a tour of the plant, see the various employees at work,
note the facilities for protection of company assets and records, and observe
various phases of the internal control programme. At all times he should be
alert to any activities or conditions pertinent to the reliability of the
financial statement assertions. For example, while observing the inventory the
may note damaged or obsolete stock. Similarly he may note that appropriate
control procedures are neglected in the handling of cash.
Observation is
perhaps the most general of all the basic audit techniques. It does not apply
to specific verification problems in the way that confirmation or
re-computation does, rather it is of some usefulness in almost all phases of
the examination and should never be overlooked.
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